Gender sensitivity in national health plans in Latin America and the European Union

Objectives: To evaluate the situation regarding gender sensitivity in national health plans in Latin America and the European Union for the decade 2000–2010. Methods: A systematic search and content analysis of national health plans were carried out within 37 countries. Gender sensitivity, defined as the extent to which a health plan considers gender as a central category and develops measures to reduce any gender-related inequalities, was analysed through an ad hoc checklist. Results: The description of health problems by sex was more frequent than intervention proposals aimed at reducing gender health disparities. The greatest number of specific intervention proposals targeted at overcoming gender-based health inequalities were associated with sexual and/or reproductive health, gender based violence, the working environment and human resources training. Compared to the European Union member states, Latin American health plans were found to be generally more gender sensitive. Conclusions: National health plans are still generally lacking in gender sensitivity. Disparities exist in health policy formulation in favour of men, whilst women's health continues to be identified mainly with reproductive health. If gender sensitivity is not taken into account, efforts to improve the quality of clinical care will be insufficient as gender inequalities will persist.

Psychometric behaviour of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) in the Spanish national health survey 2006

Background: The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is a tool to measure the risk for mental disorders in children. The aim of this study is to describe the diagnostic efficiency and internal structure of the SDQ in the sample of children studied in the Spanish National Health Survey 2006. Methods: A representative sample of 6,773 children aged 4 to 15 years was studied. The data were obtained using the Minors Questionnaire in the Spanish National Health Survey 2006. The ROC curve was constructed and calculations made of the area under the curve, sensitivity, specificity and the Youden J indices. The factorial structure was studied using models of exploratory factorial analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA). Results: The prevalence of behavioural disorders varied between 0.47% and 1.18% according to the requisites of the diagnostic definition. The area under the ROC curve varied from 0.84 to 0.91 according to the diagnosis. Factor models were cross-validated by means of two different random subsamples for EFA and CFA. An EFA suggested a three correlated factor model. CFA confirmed this model. A five-factor model according to EFA and the theoretical five-factor model described in the bibliography were also confirmed. The reliabilities of the factors of the different models were acceptable (>0.70, except for one factor with reliability 0.62). Conclusions: The diagnostic behaviour of the SDQ in the Spanish population is within the working limits described in other countries. According to the results obtained in this study, the diagnostic efficiency of the questionnaire is adequate to identify probable cases of psychiatric disorders in low prevalence populations. Regarding the factorial structure we found that both the five and the three factor models fit the data with acceptable goodness of fit indexes, the latter including an externalization and internalization dimension and perhaps a meaningful positive social dimension. Accordingly, we recommend studying whether these differences depend on sociocultural factors or are, in fact, due to methodological questions.

Self-rated health and hospital services use in the Spanish National Health System: a longitudinal study

Background: Self-rated health is a subjective measure that has been related to indicators such as mortality, morbidity, functional capacity, and the use of health services. In Spain, there are few longitudinal studies associating self-rated health with hospital services use. The purpose of this study is to analyze the association between self-rated health and socioeconomic, demographic, and health variables, and the use of hospital services among the general population in the Region of Valencia, Spain. Methods: Longitudinal study of 5,275 adults who were included in the 2005 Region of Valencia Health Survey and linked to the Minimum Hospital Data Set between 2006 and 2009. Logistic regression models were used to calculate the odds ratios between use of hospital services and self-rated health, sex, age, educational level, employment status, income, country of birth, chronic conditions, disability and previous use of hospital services. Results: By the end of a 4-year follow-up period, 1,184 participants (22.4 %) had used hospital services. Use of hospital services was associated with poor self-rated health among both men and women. In men, it was also associated with unemployment, low income, and the presence of a chronic disease. In women, it was associated with low educational level, the presence of a disability, previous hospital services use, and the presence of chronic disease. Interactions were detected between self-rated health and chronic disease in men and between self-rated health and educational level in women. Conclusions: Self-rated health acts as a predictor of hospital services use. Various health and socioeconomic variables provide additional predictive capacity. Interactions were detected between self-rated health and other variables that may reflect different complex predictive models, by gender.

Mapping and exploring health systems' response to intimate partner violence in Spain

Background: For a comprehensive health sector response to intimate partner violence (IPV), interventions should target individual and health facility levels, along with the broader health systems level which includes issues of governance, financing, planning, service delivery, monitoring and evaluation, and demand generation. This study aims to map and explore the integration of IPV response in the Spanish national health system. Methods: Information was collected on five key areas based on WHO recommendations: policy environment, protocols, training, monitoring and prevention. A systematic review of public documents was conducted to assess 39 indicators in each of Spain’s 17 regional health systems. In addition, we performed qualitative content analysis of 26 individual interviews with key informants responsible for coordinating the health sector response to IPV in Spain. Results: In 88% of the 17 autonomous regions, the laws concerning IPV included the health sector response, but the integration of IPV in regional health plans was just 41%. Despite the existence of a supportive national structure, responding to IPV still relies strongly on the will of health professionals. All seventeen regions had published comprehensive protocols to guide the health sector response to IPV, but participants recognized that responding to IPV was more complex than merely following the steps of a protocol. Published training plans existed in 43% of the regional health systems, but none had institutionalized IPV training in medical and nursing schools. Only 12% of regional health systems collected information on the quality of the IPV response, and there are many limitations to collecting information on IPV within health services, for example underreporting, fears about confidentiality, and underuse of data for monitoring purposes. Finally, preventive activities that were considered essential were not institutionalized anywhere. Conclusions: Within the Spanish health system, differences exist in terms of achievements both between regions and between the areas assessed. Progress towards integration of IPV has been notable at the level of policy, less outstanding regarding health service delivery, and very limited in terms of preventive actions.

Changes in Access to Health Services of the Immigrant and Native-Born Population in Spain in the Context of Economic Crisis

Aim: To analyze changes in access to health care and its determinants in the immigrant and native-born populations in Spain, before and during the economic crisis. Methods: Comparative analysis of two iterations of the Spanish National Health Survey (2006 and 2012). Outcome variables were: unmet need and use of different healthcare levels; explanatory variables: need, predisposing and enabling factors. Multivariate models were performed (1) to compare outcome variables in each group between years, (2) to compare outcome variables between both groups within each year, and (3) to determine the factors associated with health service use for each group and year. Results: unmet healthcare needs decreased in 2012 compared to 2006; the use of health services remained constant, with some changes worth highlighting, such as the decline in general practitioner visits among autochthons and a narrowed gap in specialist visits between the two populations. The factors associated with health service use in 2006 remained constant in 2012. Conclusion: Access to healthcare did not worsen, possibly due to the fact that, until 2012, the national health system may have cushioned the deterioration of social determinants as a consequence of the financial crisis. Further studies are necessary to evaluate the effects of health policy responses to the crisis after 2012.

Is health a right for all? An umbrella review of the barriers to health care access faced by migrants

Objective. To synthesise the scientific evidence concerning barriers to health care access faced by migrants. We sought to critically analyse this evidence with a view to guiding policies. Design. A systematic review methodology was used to identify systematic and scoping reviews which quantitatively or qualitatively analysed data from primary studies. The main variables analysed were structural and contextual barriers (health system organisation) as well as individual (patients and providers). The quality of evidence from the systematic reviews was critically appraised. From 2674 reviews, 79 were retained for further scrutiny, and finally 9 met the inclusion criteria. Results. The structural barriers identified were the lack of health insurance and the high cost of drugs (non-universal health system) and organisational aspects of health system (social insurance system and national health system). The individual barriers were linguistic and cultural. None of the reviews provided a quality appraisal of the studies. Conclusions. Barriers to health care for migrants range from entitlement in non-universal health systems to accessibility in universal ones, and determinants of access to the respective health services should be analysed within the corresponding national context. Generate social and institutional changes that eliminate barriers to access to health services is essential to ensure health for all.

Health inequality between immigrants and natives in Spain: the loss of the healthy immigrant effect in times of economic crisis

Background: The immigrant population living in Spain grew exponentially in the early 2000s but has been particularly affected by the economic crisis. This study aims to analyse health inequalities between immigrants born in middle- or low-income countries and natives in Spain, in 2006 and 2012, taking into account gender, year of arrival and socioeconomic exposures. Methods: Study of trends using two cross-sections, the 2006 and 2012 editions of the Spanish National Health Survey, including residents in Spain aged 15–64 years (20 810 natives and 2950 immigrants in 2006, 14 291 natives and 2448 immigrants in 2012). Fair/poor self-rated health, poor mental health (GHQ-12 > 2), chronic activity limitation and use of psychotropic drugs were compared between natives and immigrants who arrived in Spain before 2006, adjusting robust Poisson regression models for age and socioeconomic variables to obtain prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Results: Inequalities in poor self-rated health between immigrants and natives tend to increase among women (age-adjusted PR2006 = 1.39; 95% CI: 1.24–1.56, PR2012 = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.33–1.82). Among men, there is a new onset of inequalities in poor mental health (PR2006 = 1.10; 95% CI: 0.86–1.40, PR2012 = 1.34; 95% CI: 1.06–1.69) and an equalization of the previously lower use of psychotropic drugs (PR2006 = 0.22; 95% CI: 0.11–0.43, PR2012 = 1.20; 95% CI: 0.73–2.01). Conclusions: Between 2006 and 2012, immigrants who arrived in Spain before 2006 appeared to worsen their health status when compared with natives. The loss of the healthy immigrant effect in the context of a worse impact of the economic crisis on immigrants appears as potential explanation. Employment, social protection and re-universalization of healthcare would prevent further deterioration of immigrants’ health status.

The Impact of Education and Socioeconomic and Occupational Conditions on Self-Perceived and Mental Health Inequalities Among Immigrants and Native Workers in Spain

There is limited evidence on the influence of social determinants on the self-perceived and mental health of immigrants settled at least 8 years in Spain. The aim of this study was to examine differences between workers related to migrant-status, self-perceived and mental health, and to assess their relationship to occupational conditions, educational level and occupational social class, stratified by sex. Using data from the Spanish National Health Survey of 2011/12, we computed prevalence, odds ratios and explicative fractions. Mental (OR 2.02; CI 1.39–2.93) and self-perceived health (OR 2.64; CI 1.77–3.93) were poorer for immigrant women compared to natives. Occupational social class variable contributes 25 % to self-perceived health OR in immigrant women. Settled immigrant women workers are a vulnerable group in Spain.

Antecedentes históricos de la nutrición comunitaria en España: los trabajos de la Escuela Nacional de Sanidad, 1930-36

El trabajo analiza los antecedentes históricos de la nutrición comunitaria española a través del estudio de los primeros intentos de institucionalización que tuvieron lugar en la Sección de Higiene de la Alimentación y Nutrición de la Escuela Nacional de Sanidad (ENS), limitando la búsqueda al período 1930-1936. Junto a la formación de los profesionales de la salud pública en las materias relacionadas con la nutrición y la alimentación se desarrolló un programa de investigación que contemplaba tres grandes áreas de trabajo. Para poder conocer cuál era la alimentación media habitual de los españoles y orientar las medidas preventivas encaminadas a conseguir una adecuada alimentación se llevaron a cabo estudios y encuestas sobre consumo. Se estudió la composición química de los alimentos españoles, con el objeto de determinar las posibles carencias. Por último, se analizaron los problemas de salud que acarreaba una alimentación deficiente en grupos de riesgo como las personas diabéticas. Los resultados de las investigaciones pusieron de manifiesto que la alimentación media de los españoles, especialmente la de las clases trabajadoras, estaba muy lejos de poder ser considerada equilibrada desde el punto de vista nutricional. Los mayores problemas residían en un déficit de proteínas animales, así como importantes deficiencias en aportes de minerales y vitaminas. El estallido de la guerra civil en julio de 1936 interrumpió el desarrollo del proceso de institucionalización. Sólo en la década de 1960, tras el paréntesis del primer franquismo, se recuperó el interés sanitario por los problemas de la alimentación.

Relación entre el número de horas de cuidado informal y el estado de salud mental de las personas cuidadoras

Fundamento: La salud mental de las personas cuidadoras se ve perjudicada por las tareas de cuidado. Son necesarios estudios que especifiquen la influencia de diversas variables en la asociación entre cuidado informal y salud mental. El objetivo del trabajo es analizar los efectos del tiempo dedicado al cuidado informal en la salud mental por sexo según el tipo de personas dependientes. Métodos: Los datos que se utilizaron fueron los de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud 2006, cuya muestra estaba compuesta por 29.478 participantes. Variables: salud mental (GHQ-12), tiempo de cuidado, edad, clase social y apoyo funcional (Duke-UNC). Se realizó análisis de regresión logística para determinar la probabilidad de contar con mala salud mental según horas de cuidado, ajustado por edad, clase social y apoyo funcional. Resultados: Las mujeres presentan peor salud mental a partir de 97 horas semanales en el cuidado a menores (OR=1,372), de 25 horas en el cuidado a personas mayores de 74 años (OR=1,602 entre 25 y 48 horas; OR=1,467 49-96h; OR=1,874 97-168h) y cuando dedican alguna hora al cuidado de personas adultas con discapacidad (OR=1,996 0-24h; OR=2,507 25-48h; OR=3,016 49-96h; OR=1,651 97-168h). Los varones muestran deterioro de la salud psicológica cuando dedican un elevado número de horas al cuidado de personas mayores de 74 años (OR=2,810 97168h.) y personas con discapacidad (OR=3,411 97-168h.) y cuando dedican de 0 a 24h al cuidado de menores (OR=1,595). Conclusiones: El efecto del número de horas de cuidado en la salud mental de las personas cuidadoras está influido por el tipo de persona dependiente y por el sexo de la persona cuidadora.

La Encuesta Nacional de Salud como herramienta de medición de la doble carga y sobrecarga de trabajo en España: comparación con la Encuesta de Población Activa

Objetivo: Determinar si la ENS y la EPA de 2006 producen la misma información sobre labores del hogar y doble carga de trabajo en la población de 25 a 64 años, en ambos sexos. Métodos: Comparación entre las ENS y EPA sobre la forma de recoger información de la doble carga de trabajo. Fuente: Preguntas ENS: actividad económica (C.1.2:categorías 1,2,6), dedicación labores del hogar (A.11:categorías 1,2,3). EPA: actividad económica (H.1:categorías 1,5). Descripción por sexo en España y Comunidades Autónomas (CC.AA). Resultados: El 43,4% de las mujeres según la EPA tienen doble carga de trabajo, pero solo un 0,7% según la ENS. En los hombres el 31,5% (EPA) y el 0,02% (ENS). Alternativamente, cruzando a quienes afirman trabajar (C.1.2:categorías 1,2) con quienes realizan labores del hogar (A.11:categorías 1,2,3), la doble carga de ambas encuestas se aproxima (Hombres: ENS:31,7%; EPA:31,5%; Mujeres: ENS:46,3%; EPA:43,4%). Ambas encuestas ordenan de forma similar a las CC.AA según la doble carga de trabajo (ρmujeres:0,770 (p=0,001); ρhombres:0,647 (p=0,003)). Conclusión: La pregunta de actividad económica de la ENS subestima la frecuencia de la doble carga de trabajo. Esta es parecida en ambas encuestas, si se cruzan los datos de quienes afirman trabajar con quienes realizan labores del hogar de la ENS. En este caso, ambas encuestas ordenan de igual forma a las CC.AA. La exclusión del adverbio «principalmente» de la categoría sobre dedicación a las labores del hogar de la ENS 2011 normalizará la pregunta sobre actividad económica respecto a las utilizadas en encuestas de salud internacionales y de CC.AA.

Social determinants of self-perceived discrimination in Spain

Objectives: To analyse the association between self-perceived discrimination and social determinants (social class, gender, country of origin) in Spain, and further to describe contextual factors which contribute to self-perceived discrimination. Methods: Cross-sectional design using data from the Spanish National Health Survey (2006). The dependent variable was self-perceived discrimination, and independent and stratifying variables were sociodemographic characteristics (e.g. sex, social class, country of origin, educational level). Logistic regression was used. Results: The prevalence of self-perceived discrimination was 4.2% for men and 6.3% for women. The likelihood of self-perceived discrimination was higher in people who originated from low-income countries: men, odds ratio (OR) 5.59 [95% confidence interval (CI) 4.55–6.87]; women, OR 4.06 (95% CI 3.42–4.83). Women were more likely to report self-perceived discrimination by their partner at home than men [OR 8.35 (95% CI 4.70–14.84)]. The likelihood of self-perceived discrimination when seeking work was higher among people who originated from low-income countries than their Spanish counterparts: men, OR 13.65 (95% CI 9.62–19.35); women, OR 10.64 (95% CI 8.31–13.62). In comparison with Spaniards, male white-collar workers who originated from low-income countries [OR 11.93 (95% CI 8.26–17.23)] and female blue-collar workers who originated from low-income countries (OR 1.6 (95% CI 1.08–2.39)] reported higher levels of self-perceived discrimination. Conclusions: Self-perceived discrimination is distributed unevenly in Spain and interacts with social inequalities. This particularly affects women and immigrants.

Asociación entre la dieta y la presencia de sobrepeso y obesidad: método de evaluación dietética de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud Española 2006

Introducción: analizar la asociación entre la frecuencia de consumo de alimentos y la presencia de sobrepeso-obesidad a partir de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud Española 2006 (ENS-06). Material y métodos: estudio transversal retrospectivo de fuentes secundarias de la ENS-06. Se seleccionaron 29.321 individuos que respondieron el Cuestionario de Frecuencia de Consumo de Alimentos, compuesto por una lista de 12 grupos, sobre los que se preguntaba su frecuencia de consumo en 5 opciones de respuesta y que se categorizaron en 3 para el análisis (consumo diario, semanal y ocasional). Se realizó un análisis descriptivo del consumo de grupos de alimentos categorizados por frecuencia de consumo, y calculando la diferencia (brecha) entre hombres y mujeres. La asociación entre frecuencia de consumo de alimentos y sobrepeso-obesidad se realizó mediante regresión logística. Resultados: el 40,7% de la población consume a diario verduras-hortalizas y el 65,2% consume frutas a diario. El 69,8%, y el 46,3% de las mujeres cumplen las recomendaciones de consumo de frutas (brecha -7,2), y de verduras-hortalizas (brecha -14,0) respectivamente. Consumir fruta ocasionalmente, disminuye la probabilidad de padecer obesidad (OR=0,72 IC95%: 0,63-0,82), frente a consumirla a diario. Consumir embutidos a diario, disminuye la probabilidad de padecer obesidad (OR=0,75 IC95%: 0,68-0,83), frente a un consumo ocasional. Conclusiones: Los resultados muestran contradicciones científicas por la presencia de sesgos en el instrumento utilizado en la recogida de la información, sugiriendo la necesidad de que la ENS incluya un método de recogida de información dietética-nutricional validado y adoptado, que permita mediciones de mayor calidad y exactitud.

Barriers and facilitators to effective coverage of Intimate Partner Violence services for immigrant women in Spain

Objective: To explore service providers’ perceptions in order to identify barriers and facilitators to effective coverage of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) services for immigrant women in Spain, according to the different categories proposed in Tanahashi's model of effective coverage. Methods: A qualitative study based on 29 in-depth personal interviews and four group interviews with a total of 43 professionals working in public services (social and health-care services, women's refuges, the police force, the judiciary) and NGOs in Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia and Alicante (Spain) in 2011. Findings: Current IPV services in Spain partially fail in their coverage of abused immigrant women due to barriers of (i) availability, such as the inexistence of culturally appropriate services; (ii) accessibility, as having a residence permit is a prerequisite for women's access to different services and rights; (iii) acceptability, such as women's lack of confidence in the effectiveness of services; and (iv) effectiveness, for example, lack of specific training among professionals on the issues of IPV and immigration. However, interviewees also identified facilitators, such as the enabling environment promoted by the Spanish Law on Gender-Based Violence (1/2004), and the impetus it has provided for the development of other specific legislative tools to address IPV in immigrant populations in Spain (availability, accessibility and effectiveness). Conclusion: Whilst not dismissing cultural barriers, aspects related to service structure are identified by providers as the main barriers and facilitators to immigrant women use of IPV services. Despite noteworthy achievements, improvements are still required in terms of mainstreaming assistance tailored to immigrant women's needs in IPV policies and services.

Percepción de los profesionales de enfermería y auxiliares de enfermería sobre cultura de seguridad del paciente en el área quirúrgica

Objetivos: Evaluar las percepciones, opiniones y conductas que tienen enfermeros y auxiliares de enfermería sobre seguridad del paciente en el servicio quirúrgico de un hospital público del Sistema Nacional de Salud español. Describir fortalezas y debilidades/oportunidades de mejora según criterios de la Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality y conocer el número de incidentes de seguridad notificados. Método: Estudio observacional, transversal, llevado a cabo utilizando la versión española del cuestionario Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture. La muestra estuvo constituida por profesionales de enfermería que aceptaron participar en el estudio voluntariamente y cumplían los criterios de selección. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo e inferencial en función de la naturaleza de las variables y las condiciones de aplicación de los test estadísticos. Significación p < 0,05. Resultados: Respondieron 74 profesionales de enfermería (63,2%). No se encontró ninguna fortaleza en el servicio quirúrgico, y las áreas principales que necesitan mejora corresponden a «Dotación de personal» (64,0%) y «Apoyo de la gerencia del hospital en materia de seguridad del paciente» (52,9%). El 52,3% (n = 65) califica el grado de seguridad del paciente entre 7 y 8,99 (en una escala de 10); el 79,7% (n = 72) no notificó ningún incidente durante el último año. La varianza total explicada por el modelo de regresión fue 0,56 para «Frecuencia de eventos notificados» y 0,26 para «Percepción de seguridad». Conclusiones: Percepción más positiva sobre cultura de seguridad del paciente a nivel de unidad/servicio. Las debilidades identificadas pueden servir para diseñar actividades concretas de intervención para mejorar la cultura de seguridad del paciente en otros servicios quirúrgicos del entorno.